Psychology and religion: at first glance it would seem as though the two concepts do not sit well together. One being the scientific study of mind and behaviour, and the other being a matter of faith and belief, often unsupported by empirical evidence. This article aims to look at the link between psychology and religion and to consider some of the reasons why psychologists should devote time to the study of religion.
Although the psychological study of religion has gained in popularity over recent decades, it is still seen as a niche area of research and post graduate study in this area is regarded as risky[1]. However psychology is the science of human behaviour, and religion is a motivating factor for the behaviour of many people all over the world every day. This is illustrated by research which shows that in 2009 97% of Americans believed in God and about 90% regularly prayed[2]. Religion is something that plays an important part in many aspects of human existence, even affecting the lives of those who are not themselves religious. Many social issues and conflicts across the globe, both modern and historical, stem from religious disagreements and misunderstandings, despite the majority of religions being based around altruism and helping others.
Psychology does not attempt to justify or argue either for or against religious belief and practices. Instead the psychological study of religion aims to consider (through the analysis of empirical evidence) human motivation, cognitions, and behaviour in relation to their religious beliefs. The cognitive science of religion takes a scientific approach to the study of religion, combining methods and theories from cognitive, developmental, and evolutionary psychology[3]. One theory that has emerged from the cognitive science of religion is that religious beliefs and practices have endured because they encouraged people to be more cooperative and prosocial, thus offering an advantage in terms of survival and reproduction[4]. Studies have shown a causal connection between religious ideas and prosocial behaviour[5]. Shariff and Norenzayan[6] conducted a study in which participants had to decide how much money to share with an anonymous person and how much to keep for themselves. Attention was drawn to religious ideas by a priming activity in which participants were given groups of five words scrambled out of order and being asked to rearrange the order of the words to make a sentence, with one word left out. The participants primed with word groups related to religion (eg spirit, sacred) gave significantly more money to the anonymous person than the other participant group. Shariff and Norenzayan[7] suggest that having been subtly reminded of their religiosity may have been enough to make participants more generous.
The study of religion and the mind is not a new area of interest. As far back as 1907, Sigmund Freud, famously known as the father of psycho-analysis, was writing papers on religion. Interestingly, Freud’s view of religion was as a collective neurosis which people bought into to save themselves the effort of forming an individual neurosis[8]! Freud described the similarities between religious acts and obsessive rituals, arguing that both result in feelings of guilt when rituals are not carried out. When the rituals are carried out, the guilt is removed, resulting in a self-perpetuating cycle which Freud termed ‘ritualaholic’[9].
In 2011 Loewenthal and Lewis[10] published a comprehensive article about the relations between religious factors and mental health. They found that many religious beliefs and practices are associated with lower levels of depression and anxiety[11]. The most important practice, as a predictor of well-being, was found to be prayer[12]. However it was also found that religious factors are not always beneficial. An example given by Loewenthal and Lewis is that those who believe in a punishing God are more likely to have poorer mental health than those who believe in a benign God[13]. In contrast to Freud’s view about religious guilt being an important basis for religious acts, Loewenthal and Lewis conclude that religious guilt is not a causal factor in mental health issues[14].
Psychologists can make use of people’s religious beliefs when conducting treatments or therapies. Many psychologists have found that it is helpful to incorporate patients’ beliefs into treatment plans, particularly when the patient holds a belief about the cause of their disorder. In many cultures there are widespread tales about demons and malign spirits possessing the bodies of certain unlucky people. In cases where the patient believes this is what has happened to them, it is important for the psychologist involved in their treatment to put aside any personal sceptical feelings and show an understanding that acknowledgement of these ‘alternative’ views may be necessary to help the patient move forward with their treatment[15]. An example given by Dein[16] tells about a young man, an orthodox Muslim, who believed that his cousin had put a curse on him. His cousin, whom he had a bad relationship with, practised magic and had told the young man that he would die. The young man became withdrawn and stopped eating or drinking. After being admitted to hospital and diagnosed with depression, the young man held on to his belief that he had been cursed and his condition did not improve. Eventually his parents resorted to calling a ‘counter-magician’ who was able to ‘remove the curse’ from the young man. Following this, his condition improved rapidly and he was discharged from hospital two days later[17]!
This story shows how faith and belief can not only have a major impact on mental health, but on physical health too, which is just one of the many reasons why psychologists should continue to have an interest in religious beliefs and practices.
With thanks to the special edition of The Psychologist (April 2011; vol 24 no 4)
Article by Laura Oxley
lauraoxley@cantab.net
MEd Psychology and Education
Appendix 1
[1] Collicutt, J. (2011) Psychology, religion and spirituality, The Psychologist, 24(4), 250 - 251
[2] Spika, B., Hill, P. C., and Hood, R. W. (2009) The Psychology of Religion: An Empirical Approach, Guilford Publications. Retrieved 17 February 2013, from http://lib.myilibrary.com?ID=231926
[3] Barrett, J. L. and Burdett, E. R. (2011) The Cognitive Science of Religion, The Psychologist, 24(4), 252 - 255
[4] Barret, J.L. and Burdett, E.R. (2011)
[5] Pichon et al. (2007); Saroglou et al (2009); Shariff and Norenzayan (2007); cited in Barret J. L. and Burdett, E. R. (2011)
[6] Shariff A. F. and Norenzayan, A. (2007) God is watching you: Supernatural agent concepts increase prosocial behaviour in an anonymous economic game; cited in Barret, J. L. and Burdett, E. R. (2011)
[7] Shariff A. F. and Norenzayan, A. (2007)
[8] Loewenthal, K. M. and Lewis, C. A. (2011) Mental health, religion and culture, The Psychologist, 24(4), 256 - 259
[9] Freud, S. (1924) Obsessive acts and religious practices. Collected papers. London: Hogarth Press [originally published in 1907]; cited in Loewenthal, K. M. and Lewis, C. A. (2011)
[10] Loewenthal, K. M. and Lewis, C. A. (2011)
[11] Loewenthal, K. M. and Lewis, C. A. (2011)
[12] Maltby et al (1999); cited in Loewenthal, K. M. and Lewis, C. A. (2011)
[13] Loewenthal, K. M. and Lewis, C. A. (2011)
[14] Loewenthal, K. M. and Lewis, C. A. (2011)
[15] Loewenthal, K. M. and Lewis, C. A. (2011)
[16] Dein, 2003; cited in Loewenthal, K. M. and Lewis, C. A. (2011)
[17] Dein, 2003; cited in Loewenthal, K. M. and Lewis, C. A. (2011)
truthinessoffaith
If anyone’s interested, you should check out this blog post about psychology of Muslim immigrants in Europe. It’s pretty mind-blowing.